3.34 Causes of Mutation

• Mutation - Change in base sequence of the gene 
• New alleles can be produced
• Example of causes:
• Radiation (UVB rays (Sun light))
• Chemicals Ex: Tar (Called mutagenes)
• Causes cancer 

3.33 Antibiotic Resistance

• Infections (staphylococcus) can be treated by antibiotics (methecilline)
• MSSA
• Staphylococcus auerus - Cause skin/lung infections
• Infections that keep on growing even after treated have resistance to it
• MRSA
• Caused by random mutation (Created genes that makes it resistant)
• Antibiotic does not work / use stronger antibiotic

3.32 Types of mutation

• Gene-Mutation-> New alleles 
• Types of effects:
• Beneficial - Ex: To improve enzyme's efficiency and/or production speed
• Neutral - No change / Might change due to environment
• Harmful - Ex: Mutation produces inefficiency enzymes

3.31 Evolution

Evolution

• Change in the form of the organism
• Change in the frequency of allele (Natural selection)
• Increase for resistance
• Natural selection
• System of evolution
• Introduced by Darwin
• Survival of the fittest

3.30 Mutation

• Mutation - changes in base sequence of gene
• Produces a new version of allele
• Affects production of proteins and or phenotype 
• Different alleles exists due to mutation of the genes

3.29 Species Variation

• Variation - visible differences in the phenotype / Can be measured using graph and/or bracket form
• Individual's Phenotype = Genotype (modified by Environment)
• Variation Population = Variation Genotype = Variation Environment
• Differences in individuals is due to different genotypes/environments
• Graph 1 = Variation of species due to variation of genotypes
• Graph 2 = Variation of genotypes and variation of population / Ex: Height of humans (diet)
• Graph 3 = Variation of genotypes without genotype influence

3.21 Genetic probabilities

3.20 Pedigree

3.19 P1 x P! Cross

3.18 Codominace

3.18 Phenotypes and Genotypes

Phenotypes: Appearance

Genotypes:

3.12 Amniotic fluid

• Amnotic fluid fills the uterus and protects the embryo
• Mostly composed of non-compressible water
• Absorbs pressures when uterus experiences blows or forces like mother hitting something
• Acts as shock absorber
• Prevents damage to the child

3.11 Placenta

• The foetus relies on the mother as it develops for:
• Food and water (Nutrients) - Gained from the placenta 
• Protection - Protected by the uterus and the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus
• Oxygen - Also gained from placenta
• Placenta - Transports glucose, amino acids, fats and oxygen from the mother's blood stream to the foetus through the umbilical cord
• Umbilical cord connects fetus to the placenta
• Nutrients and oxygen diffuses across the placenta to transport it from mother to fetus
• Waste such as CO^2 also diffuses across the placenta to transport it from fetus to the mother

3.9 Male and Female Reproductive Systems

3.9 Recall the structure of the Male and Female reproductive systems

Bladder stores urine

Testis carry out mitosis to produce sperm cell

Epididymis stores sperm cells

Vas deferens carry sperm cells to penis during sexual simulation

Prostate adds 20%-30% of semen known to contain sugars and alkali

Seminal vesicles add 70% of semen/ also contains sugars and alkali

Urethra is the common tube that joins left and right testis

• Takes semen down  the testes
• Carries urine

• Ovaries contain hundreds of undeveloped egg cells
• Egg tubes connect the uterus to the ovry
• Lined with cilia
• An egg develops and goes through the tube every month
• Uterus is a muscular bag where the baby develops
• Has a soft lining
• Also called a womb
• Cervix is a ring of muscle located at the lower end of the uterus
• Keeps baby in place during pregnancy
• Vagina is a muscular tube that leads the cervix to the outside of the female body