2.75 Urine

• Summary of the last 5:
• Kidneys influenced by the brain
• Blood is filtered in the kidney
• Removed molecules come out the ureter as urine
• Gets collected in the bladder
• Urine
• Contains salts, waters urea
• Composition depends on the condition of the individual
• affects composition of the tissue fluid
• Osmoregulation
• Removal of urea
• Excretion of metabolic waste

2.74 Antidiuretichormone

• Antidiuretichormone
• produced in a region of the brain (Hypothalamus)
• Flows through the blood stream to the Kidney
• Controls the quantity of the water in the blood
• Making the tissue fluid isotonic with the cells
• Adding this hormone increases amount of water reabsorbed from the duct 

2.73 Glucose Reabsorption

• Selective Reabsorption
• Glucose molecule is selected
• Will be moved to the glomeral filtrate and back into the blood
• Filtration
• Occurs in the Bowman's Capsule
• Filtrate contains glucose, salts, urea and water
• Formed from high pressures of the blood
• Urine exiting nephron
• No Glucose
• If present, indicates diabetise
• Proximal Convoluted Tubule
• 1st/twisted
• Glucose is stored in the fluid inside this
• Removed and taken back into the blood

2.72 Water re-absorption

• Bowman's Capsule
• Where ultrafiltration happens
• Blood foes in to the kidney
• High pressures
• Dissolved contents in the blood are forced out into the Broman's capsule
• Glomerula Filtrate
• Too much water is filtrated
• Filtrate passes along the tubule
• Reaches collecting duct
• Water is removed from filtrate
• goes down medula
• Returned back into the blood vessels
• Water has been reabsorbed into the blood

Animation:

http://www.hcc.uce.ac.uk/physiology/ADH2.gif

2.71 Ultrafiltration

• Nephron
• Filters blood
• Filtered: Clean / Urine: Waiste
• Urine
• Mixture of water, salts, and urea
• Urea = Nitrogen waste
• toxic
• Bowman's Capsulte
• Where ultrafiltration starts
• Blood arrives in the kidnes
• in Afferent arteriole
• at high pressure
• with wide blood vessel
• Passes through Glomerulus
• Passes out Efferent artiole
• Narrow blood vessel
• High pressures
• Forces the plasma out of the blood vessel
• Plasma enters the inside of the Bowman's Capsule
• Glomerula Filtrate

2.70 Nephron Structure

• Renal Vein
• Carries blood away from kidneys
• Transports it back to the right side of the heart
• Urea removed from the blood 
• Has the exact amount of salts and water
• Kidney removes the excess
• Controlled by the brain
• Antidiuretichormone (ADH)
• controls amount of water that is excreted
• Renal Artery
• Supplies blood to the kidneys
• Contains glucose and oxygen
• Must have pressure to filter blood
• Contains urea
• Toxic
• Must be excreted 
• Pelvis
• Region of the kidney in which urine is collected
• Note to remember: P. Elvis
• Ureter
• Carries urine to the bladder
• stays in bladder till excreted
• Medulla
• The inside part of kidney
• Where amount of salt and water is controlled
• Consists of billions of loops of henle
• ADH makes the loops pump more sodium ions
• Very concentrated urine is produced
• Cortex
• Outer part of the kidney
• Where the blood is filtered
• Ultra-filtration
• Only works when blood entering is at a high pressure
• Glomerulus
• Tiny ball of capillaries
• Found in the cortex
• Surrounded by "Browman's capsule"
• Glomeruli leaks
• RBC/WBC/Platelets stay in blood vessels
• Plasma leaks out into the capsules
• Most of  the "ultra-filtrate" liquid is re absorbed in the medulla
• put back in the blood 

2.69

• Urinary System
• Kidneys
• Has it's own blood supply
• Ureter
• A tube that carries Urine from kidney to bladder
• Urethra
• Urine is excreted through this
• Leads to the Vagina (Femlae)
• Leads to the Penis (Male)

2.68 Excretion and Osmoregulation in the Kidneys

• The Kidney excretes a molecule called Urea
• Contains Nitrogen
• Toxic to the body
• Cannot be stored
• From Amino Acids
• Blood circulates to the Liver
• Amno Acids in the blood are broken down in the liver
• Produces Urea
• Then transports to the Kidneys
• Filters Urea out of the blood
• Water added
• Urine is formed
• Collected in the bladder
• Urea no out of the body

• Osmoregulation-
• Osmo (Osmosis)
• Regulation (To control)
• To control Osmosis
• Tissue Fluids surrounding the cells must be Isotonic with the cytoplasm of the cells
• Water in = Water out
• Cells remain their function and shape
• Danger of Blood circulating into the tissue-
• Hypertonic (Concentrited) -
• too much water 
• Hypotonic (Dilute) -
• Removes to much water
• Not enough in the cell
• Isotonic conditions
• Archived by controlling composition of blood
• Blood forms the tissue fluid
• Kidney controls the composition
• Excess water and salts are removed

2.67 Excretion in plants and Humans

• Plants-
• Excretion-
• Uses Photosynthesis 
• Takes light energy, CO2 and water and turns it into Glucose
• (Light + Carbon Dioxide + Water -> Glucose + Oxygen)
• Oxygen becomes the waist product from this process 
• Aerobic Respiration-
• Glucose + Oxygen -> CO2 + Water + ATP
• Uses enzyme to convert Glucose and Oxygen to CO2, Water & ATP
• Water and CO2 Get's excreted 

• Humans-
• Lungs-
• Takes in Oxygen, excretes Carbon Dioxide
• Kidneys-
• Excretes Water and Urea (Amino Acids) and Salts
• Skin-
• Excretes Sweat (Water and salts) and Urea

3.34 Causes of Mutation

• Mutation - Change in base sequence of the gene 
• New alleles can be produced
• Example of causes:
• Radiation (UVB rays (Sun light))
• Chemicals Ex: Tar (Called mutagenes)
• Causes cancer 

3.33 Antibiotic Resistance

• Infections (staphylococcus) can be treated by antibiotics (methecilline)
• MSSA
• Staphylococcus auerus - Cause skin/lung infections
• Infections that keep on growing even after treated have resistance to it
• MRSA
• Caused by random mutation (Created genes that makes it resistant)
• Antibiotic does not work / use stronger antibiotic

3.32 Types of mutation

• Gene-Mutation-> New alleles 
• Types of effects:
• Beneficial - Ex: To improve enzyme's efficiency and/or production speed
• Neutral - No change / Might change due to environment
• Harmful - Ex: Mutation produces inefficiency enzymes

3.31 Evolution

Evolution

• Change in the form of the organism
• Change in the frequency of allele (Natural selection)
• Increase for resistance
• Natural selection
• System of evolution
• Introduced by Darwin
• Survival of the fittest

3.30 Mutation

• Mutation - changes in base sequence of gene
• Produces a new version of allele
• Affects production of proteins and or phenotype 
• Different alleles exists due to mutation of the genes

3.29 Species Variation

• Variation - visible differences in the phenotype / Can be measured using graph and/or bracket form
• Individual's Phenotype = Genotype (modified by Environment)
• Variation Population = Variation Genotype = Variation Environment
• Differences in individuals is due to different genotypes/environments
• Graph 1 = Variation of species due to variation of genotypes
• Graph 2 = Variation of genotypes and variation of population / Ex: Height of humans (diet)
• Graph 3 = Variation of genotypes without genotype influence

3.21 Genetic probabilities

3.20 Pedigree

3.19 P1 x P! Cross

3.18 Codominace

3.18 Phenotypes and Genotypes

Phenotypes: Appearance

Genotypes:

3.12 Amniotic fluid

• Amnotic fluid fills the uterus and protects the embryo
• Mostly composed of non-compressible water
• Absorbs pressures when uterus experiences blows or forces like mother hitting something
• Acts as shock absorber
• Prevents damage to the child

3.11 Placenta

• The foetus relies on the mother as it develops for:
• Food and water (Nutrients) - Gained from the placenta 
• Protection - Protected by the uterus and the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus
• Oxygen - Also gained from placenta
• Placenta - Transports glucose, amino acids, fats and oxygen from the mother's blood stream to the foetus through the umbilical cord
• Umbilical cord connects fetus to the placenta
• Nutrients and oxygen diffuses across the placenta to transport it from mother to fetus
• Waste such as CO^2 also diffuses across the placenta to transport it from fetus to the mother

3.9 Male and Female Reproductive Systems

3.9 Recall the structure of the Male and Female reproductive systems

Bladder stores urine

Testis carry out mitosis to produce sperm cell

Epididymis stores sperm cells

Vas deferens carry sperm cells to penis during sexual simulation

Prostate adds 20%-30% of semen known to contain sugars and alkali

Seminal vesicles add 70% of semen/ also contains sugars and alkali

Urethra is the common tube that joins left and right testis

• Takes semen down  the testes
• Carries urine

• Ovaries contain hundreds of undeveloped egg cells
• Egg tubes connect the uterus to the ovry
• Lined with cilia
• An egg develops and goes through the tube every month
• Uterus is a muscular bag where the baby develops
• Has a soft lining
• Also called a womb
• Cervix is a ring of muscle located at the lower end of the uterus
• Keeps baby in place during pregnancy
• Vagina is a muscular tube that leads the cervix to the outside of the female body

3.24 Mitosis

• Mitosis- Cell division - Growth - Increase in cell count
• Cell - 46 chromosomes - diploid number - abbreviation : 2N
• Humans: 46
• Cats: 38
• The cell divides in two that contains a diploid nucleus - identical 'twins' - Exact copy of the original - Called DNA replication
• Same number of chromosomes
• Same set of chromosomes
• The two copies are held together by the 'centrometre' - Makes pair of 'Chromatids'
• DNA replication happens inside nucleus - process is known as: Cell Cycle
• Prophase - When the nucleaus starts breaking down and the chromosomes become visible as a pair of chromatids in the process of Mitosis begins
• Protine molecules create spindle grow where the chromatids move and join on to
• Metaphase - Spindle fibers + Chromatid attach through the centrometre
• Anaphase - The fiber + Chromatid shortens and gets pulled apart - moves away from another - becomes separated pars of chromatids
• Telophase - Nucleus begins to regorm around the chromosome of both cells (Last phase)
• Cytokinesis - when the cell splits into 2 - NOT PART OF MITOSIS

3.16 DNA and Genetic information

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CEBmnfLWDQs&feature=related

• A chromosome has thousands of genes that when expanded and magnified, you would find 2 helix that are parallel- When we zoom in again, we see what holds the strands of the helix together, the two sections 
• 'Sugar Phosphate ?Backbone' is what holds both helixes together
• Molecules called bases that hold both helixes together
• Adenine (A)
• Thymine (T)
• Cytosine (C)
• Guanine (G)
• 
  

3.14&.15 Chromosomes

3.14 Chromosomes

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TxYoZsso1y8
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-GPZCggg2lA&feature=related

• Cell Nucleus > Chromosomes >  DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) > Genes ( Section)
• DNA shape: Double helix

  /\

 /_\

/__\

\__/

 \_/

  \/

  /\

 /_\

/__\

\__/<-- Genes ---------> Characteristics Ex: Petal color/Blood type

 \_/      (Neucleus)       (Protein (Cytoplasm))

  \/

  /\

 /_\

/__\

\__/

 \_/

  \/

• 1 Chromosome = 1000s of genes
• Genes carry instructions for the build of a protein 
• Protein carries characteristics of an individual ex: Blood
• Different spices have different numbers of chromosomes 
• Cat: 38
• Chicken: 78
• Chimps: 42
• Humans: 46
• Chromosomes work in pairs (homologous pairs)
• Nature: Based on length of the chromosones
• Homologous Loci = the sames as the other paired with it ( 2 versions of one charactaristic per gene (alleles))

3.14 Chromosomes

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TxYoZsso1y8

• Cell Nucleus > Chromosomes >  DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) > Genes ( Section)
• DNA shape: Double helix

  /\

 /_\

/__\

\__/

 \_/

  \/

  /\

 /_\

/__\

\__/<-- Genes 

 \_/

  \/

  /\

 /_\

/__\

\__/

 \_/

  \/

• 1 Chromosome = 1000s of genes
• Genes carry instructions for the build of a protein 
• Protein carries characteristics of an individual ex: Blood
• Different spices have different numbers of chromosomes 
• Cat: 38
• Chicken: 78
• Chimps: 42
• Humans: 46
• Chromosomes work in pairs (homologous pairs)
• Nature: Based on length of the chromosones
• Homologous Loci = the sames as the other paired with it ( 2 versions of one charactaristic per gene (alleles))

4.14 Enhanced Grennhouse effect

• Increase pollution > Greater Greenhouse effects
• Pollutions causing GHE: CO2/SO2/Water Vapor
• Vapor takes back UV lights and bounces it back to Earth
• Consiquences-
• Ice caps > Higher Sea levels > Changes current flow and wind direction
• Less land due to more water

4.13 Greenhouse gases

• Burning fossil fuels > CO2/SO2/NO2 > Causes green gases
• Grennhouse gases absorb more infrared from the sun > Heats Earth 
• Farming > Cows > CH4 > 9% of greenhouse gases
• Water > Vapor
• Refrigiration and propellants > CFC, Clorine,Flourine, and Carbon > Absorbs UV light/Speeds up process > Breaks Ozone layer

4.12 Greenhouse Effect

• More CO2 and CH4 = Temperature rises even more

4.11 Gas Pollution

• Sulpher Dioxide is added to the atmosphere from the combustion of fossil fuels and creats acid rain
• Plants-Burns tops/reduces calcium and magnesium
• Animals-Makes water bodies acidic/blocks fish's gills
• CO2 + Hemoglobins can redue oxygen intake - fatal

4.7 Energy efficiency

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uEqQAITpnbc&feature=related

• Energy pyramid - Producer 100% > Primary 10% > Secondary 1% of the producer
• Losses - Energy is lost due to growth, reparation and movement of the organism
• Sometimes the energy are excreted due to it being indigestible
• Owl gets 10% of the mouse's energy and 1% of the grass the the mouse digested before
• Microorganisms break down the remains of the deceased organisms in the end
• Cycle repeats

4.6 Energy and substances in food chains

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aZ2JNQen86g&feature=related

• The producer creates chemical energy from light energy and the consumers create chemical  energy from the producer
• Organic molecules - transferred from producer to consumer to consumer ex: Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
• The consumed energy  now goes to the organism's growth,  repair, and processes
• The energy changes depending on the organism
• The energy is located in between the  bonds of the organic molecules.

4.5 Food Chains & Webs

4.5a Food Chains

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=df9YZUjSRJw&feature=related

4.5b Food Webs

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RQwZjfONqyQ&feature=related

• Food chain - Links producer to the primary consumer etc.
• 1 organism  per trophic level
• Cannot show organisms being omnivore and feeding of more than 1 organism
• Shows flow of matter and energy

• Food web - shows better view of the ecosystem
• Shows the feeding between the communities in the ecosystem
• Different Tropic levels
• Multiple predators
• Multiple prey
• Linked
• Producer (Grass) > Primary consumers (Small herbivorous) > Secondary (Small birds) >Tertiary (Large birds)

4.4 Trophic Levels

4.4 Trophic Levels
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ua_ZKHPvqSw&feature=related

• Trophic - feed - different feeding levels
• Plant= Photosynthesis -> Fly=Plant -> Flycatcher=Fly -> Hawk=Flycatcher
• Producers                Primary consumer Secondary consumer  Tertiary Consumer
• Light energy > Chemical Energy > Chemical Energy > Chemical Energy
• Death - Decomposer - recycling of molecules ex: Fungi, Bacteria  
• Decomposes deceased organisms in to nitrates

4.2 Quadrates & 4.3 Quadrates samples

4.2 Quadrates

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_1goTbXOuic&feature=related

4.3 Quadrates samples

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=64NOXf-N-aY&feature=related

Quadrats - Sampling different locations to compare the population of the locations

Quadrating - Griding the ecosystem with squares of 0.25m - 1m

Quadrat- To sample locations and estimating populations

Sample

Random (biased)

 Representative (Large) - Get as much of the population toget most accurate estimate)

[

- After the field work, we tabulate the scores into a table.

-Then we add up the numbers then divide by the number of quadrates.

- this would give us the number of daisies per square meter.

Using this technique we can not only estimate the number of daisies in the whole field but could also compare it with the number of other fields.]
(EXTRACTED FROM http://aufarbiology.blogspot.com/  )

4.1 Ecosystems

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hx8AO14cVro

• Habitat- Abiotic, non biological factors, of the area
• Light
• Temp
• Rainfall
• Humidity
• Slope
• Geology
• Community of Organisms- Populations of different species
• Species- Organisms that reproduce fertile offsprings

3.4 Plant Fertilisation

3.4 Plant Fertilisation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Ya_D-9qGmU&feature=related

• Pollen germinates / creates pollen tube 
•  Pollen tube leads to ovary
• Pollen nucleus  fertilizes egg
•  Pollen nucleus + Ovule = Zygote 
• Outside ovule - testa seed coat
• Cotylectons  - Food stores for seedling
• Fruit - wall of the ovary / carpel 

3.3b Wind Pollination

3.3b Wind Pollination

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3o2L8kGPV30&feature=related

• Wind transfer - transfer of pollen from anther to stigma through wind
• Light pollen grain - able to be carried by the air
• Exposed anthers and stigma in order for the wind to be able to reach it
• Stigma have large feather like surface area
• Anther makes more pollen than needed
• No color / No scent / No sugar made needed

3.3a Insect Pollination

3.3a Insect Pollination
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JDoBkf2y39E

• Pollen transfers from one plant's anthers to another's stigma
• Insects deliver the pollen from one plant to another
• Attractions 
• Signals
• Colored petals
• Scent
• Value
• Food - Fructose / pollen
• Male parts 
• Anther - makes pollen grain
• Stamen - made of anthers
• Filaments - stocks 
• Female parts
• Stigma - catches pollen
• Style - transfers pollen to the ovary
• Ovary carries the eggs

2.81 Phototropism

2.81 Phototropism
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tE4XMg4Y_d4

• Positive phototropism - Growth towards the light
• Lateral light - Light that shines on the side of the plant
• Causes the plant to bend towards it
• Hormone causes it to bend towards the light

2.80 Geotropism

2.80 Geotropism
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=76AWJiVJR1E

• Geotropic - Geo=Gravity, Tropic=Growth Responses
• Growth responses to Gravity
• Negative Geotropism - Growth upwards
• Positive Geotropism - Growth down

2.79 Plants and stimuli

• Stimuli - Changes in Environment
  Change in light
  Change in temp
• Receptor - detect stimuli
• Response - Response to the stimuli
  Takes form of growth
• Tropism - Growth response to stimuli
  Phototroposim - Growth by light
  Geotropisim - Growth by gravity
• Plant hormone/regulator - Reactors of plants
  Ex:Auxim

2.54 Transpiration

2.54 Transpiration
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w0Y1llaghwc

• Leaf evaporates the water in it through heat energy
• Light from the sun is converted into heat that helps evaporate the water in the leaves
• Not all water particles are absorbed by the chloroplasts
• Water evaporates and leaves the leaves through the stomatal pores
• Phase change from solid to gas happens above the stomatal pore's layer
• Water diffuses through the stomatal pores
• 
  

Diagram of a Root

Diagram of a Root

2.53 Uptake of water

2.53 Uptake of Water
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O0Q3QBwcXR